Cockroaches
Nothing seems to elicit the 'yuck factor' more than cockroaches. This is partly due to their odour, appearance and the association of uncleanliness that accompanies them. The pest status of cockroaches comes from their potential to transmit diseases, cause allergic reactions, and contaminate food and utensils with regurgitations, excreta, egg cases and moulted skins. Australia has about 450 species of cockroach, of which only five or six species are considered pests. The most commonly encountered ones fall into two main groups: small cockroaches - the German (Blattella germanica) and the Brownbanded (Supella longipalpa), and the large Periplaneta varieties • American (Periplaneta americana), Smokey-brown (Periplaneta fuliginosa), and the Australian (Periplaneta australasiae).

Cockroach life-cycle
Cockroaches have three stages in their life cycle > egg, nymph and adult. A female German cockroach carries an egg case for 16-28 days, and drops it before it hatches. A female will produce between 5-8 egg cases during her life of up to 6 months. Each egg case has about 40 nymphs, which take about 100 days to become adults. The larger Periplaneta species, can live up to a year, and have between 12-26 nymphs per egg case, which take between 6-12 months to become adults.

Cockroach characteristics
› gregarious - they gather together attracted by pheromones
› thigmotactic - they prefer to be in contact with physical surfaces
› nocturnal - they are active at night and hide during the day
› omnivorous - they eat almost anything
› grooming - they frequently clean themselves

IPM strategies for cockroaches

Action thresholds for cockroaches will vary depending on the various sites and legal requirements e.g. food handling and preparation areas versus a common area. In general, the greater the distance between food, shelter and water dramatically reduces the number of cockroaches an environment can support.

IPM is a key component of environmental education and should be developed as a specific environmental education program in itself. It has critical linkages with existing environmental education programs such as Learnscapes, Streamwatch, Landcare, Stormwater, School Communities Recycling All Paper Ltd (SCRAP) and Sustainable Schools and is key to other community-based environmental initiatives. It is hoped that educational resources for the inclusion of IPM into environmental education programs will be expanded in the near future.

Five thousand species of cockroach have been discovered, and scientists believe that about the same number are still to be discovered. Cockroaches are among the oldest insects on the planet. Most of their evolutionary contemporaries are extinct.

Richard Schweid (1999) The Cockroach Papers- A Compendium of History and Lore, Four Walls Eight Windows

Ants
Ants are social insects that live in more or less permanent nests in soil, trees, logs, among rocks and inside buildings. An ant colony is divided into several castes • workers, soldiers, winged reproductives, and the queen. During the year the colony swarms and releases numerous winged ants, which if successful, go on to form new colonies.

There are over 1100 species of ants known in Australia, and not surprisingly, some take up residence in human structures looking for food and water. Ants are generally viewed as more of a nuisance than a disease pest. Common pest species include the Coastal brown ant, Odorous ant, Singapore ant, Pharaoh•s ant, Argentine ant, Black house ant and White-footed house ant.

Ants, like all insects, are beneficial in many ways including aerating the soil, recycling organic matter and preying on other insects such as flea and fly larvae, bed bugs, moths, silverfish and termites.

Ant characteristics
› live in nests
› worker ants forage from the nest for food
› make trails and pheromone scent trails
› predate or scavenge

Ant life-cycle
Ants undergo a complete metamorphosis > egg, larva, pupa and adult. The time from egg to adulthood varies between the different species of ant and the climatic conditions. Ants often move into buildings and paved areas seasonally, taking advantage of warm, damp areas.

IPM strategies for ants
Population reduction is the goal for setting tolerance levels, total eradication is not possible nor desirable. Care should be taken to avoid affecting non-pest species. Food source removal is much better than using barrier sprays for ants as ants are adept at finding new paths to reach desirable food.

Numerically ants are the most abundant social insects. There are an estimated 1,000,000,000,000,000, or 1 quadrillion of them on earth at any one time. This is estimated to be about 0.1% of the total number of insects.

William Olkowski; Sheila Daar; Helga Olkowski (1991) Common-Sense Pest Control: least toxic solutions for your home, garden, pets and community, The Taunton Press

FLEAS

Fleas are an external parasitic insect, which during the adult stage of their life cycle, suck blood from animals, including humans. There are about 2,000 known species of fleas worldwide and about 70 of those are found in Australia. Fleas have earned their pest status because of their biting habit, which causes irritation and can transmit disease.

There are two main pest species - the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) and the dog flea (Ctenocephalides canis). There is also the Human flea and the Oriental rat flea. The most common pest is the cat flea, which despite its name, is also found on other warm-blooded hosts such as dogs, rats, chickens, humans and other animals.

Flea characteristics
› prefer warm, humid conditions, high humidity encourages the development of larvae
› biting (piercing and sucking)
› emergence of adult fleas linked to vibrations, heat and pressure, and an increase in the level of carbon dioxide

Flea life-cycle
Fleas undergo complete metamorphosis > egg, larva, pupa and adult. The adult lays her eggs on the host, where they hatch into larva within 4-8 days. The larvae then move into pile in carpets, cracks in floorboards, or into soil and sand where they feed on organic matter such as dried blood. They then spin a silken cocoon and enter the pupal stage. The pupae emerge as adults in 5-14 days if conditions are favourable. If conditions are unfavourable, such as dryness, larvae can live for 200 days, while pupae can lay dormant for up to a year.

FLIES AND MOSQUITOES

Flies
The term 'fly' refers to a big group of insects that have two wings and hence belong to the insect Order Diptera, which means two 'di' wings 'ptera'. The order includes blowflies, houseflies, mosquitoes, midges, hover flies and fruit flies. There are over 6000 species in Australia and 85,000 worldwide. Each fly species has distinct habits and breeding sites, so it is very important that a correct identification be made of the adult fly before any IPM program is designed. As flies can feed on excrement and sewage, they can come into contact with germs and transmit disease.

Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are one of the more serious of insect pests that have a direct impact on humans. They play a significant role in the transmission of diseases such as malaria, dengue and yellow fevers, encephalitis, and filariasis. Only females are blood suckers.

Fly and mosquito life-cycle
Flies and mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis > egg, larva 'maggot', pupa and adult. Life cycles vary significantly for different species.

Insect repellents
Exposure to insect repellents containing high concentrations of DEET (diethyl-m-toluamide) have been linked with serious illness in children and infants. Never use DEET on children under the age of 2. DEET is fat soluble and rapidly absorbed through the skin and distributed to organs, affecting the nervous system. Insect repellents may also cause allergic reactions and dermatitis. Never spray repellents directly onto the face or open wounds or cuts. Don’t apply in enclosed rooms. Roll-on, lotion and cream formulations reduce inhalation risks. Wherever possible choose non-chemical options such as protective clothing, screens and mosquito nets. Store insect repellents out of reach of children.

LICE

Lice are external parasites. There are two main types • biting lice (Mallophaga) found mostly on birds and, sucking lice (Anoplura) found on mammals, including humans. The three sucking lice that are pests to humans are the head louse, the body louse and the pubic louse. The section will only discuss head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), as they are a common pest of school-aged children.

Head lice characteristics
› Head lice are harmless, but they are very irritating and cause children to be inattentive in class.
› spend entire life on the host
› both sexes feed on blood
› move quickly (do not jump or fly)
› prefer warmer climates
› transmitted by close contact
› prefer clean hair

Head lice life-cycle
Head louse life cycle > egg 'nits', nymph, adult. The adult female head louse lives about 10 days and lays 50-300 eggs close to the scalp, attaching them to individual hairs with glue-like secretion. Nymphal lice emerge from the eggs, feed on human blood, mature to adults in about 9 days, mate and repeat the cycle.

Headlice management made easy!
The National Pediculosis Association (NPA) is a non-profit health and education agency dedicated to protecting children from the misuse and abuse of potentially harmful lice and scabies pesticidal treatments. As part of its mission, the NPA works to encourage health and child care professionals to adopt standardised head lice management programs in an effort to keep the children in school lice and nit free. Pediculosis provides an early opportunity to teach children responsible personal health behaviours - lessons that become valuable as children mature into a world full of other behavioural health threats. Communities that promote head lice prevention programs demonstrate a commitment to health and wellness. The site has information packs that can be downloaded for distribution and a "No Nit Standard" that can be adopted in schools and childcare centres.

Visit www.headlice.org

SPIDER

Spiders are perhaps one of the most feared organisms and their presence often evokes hysteria, particularly in Australia, as there are several highly venomous species, namely the funnel-web and the red-back. Their bad name is largely undeserved, as spiders are true pest control professionals and play an important role in controlling insect populations, both indoors and outdoors. A spider can eat up to two times its weight in insects every day. Spiders are Arachnids, not insects as commonly thought, and have 8 legs and 2 body segments whereas insects have 6 legs and 3 main body segments.

Spider life cycle

Spider life cycle > egg sac, spiderlings (many moults), adults

Commonly occurring spiders in Australia:
› Ground-dwelling spiders: mouse spider, wolf spider, brown trapdoor, Sydney and northern tree funnel-webs.
› Orb-weaving spiders: garden orb weaver, St Andrews Cross, leaf-curling spiders, two spined spider, tailed spider, golden orb weaver.
› Spider anglers: magnificent, hairy imperial, orchard or deaths head.
› Others: red-back, black house, huntsman, net-casting, jumping.

Spider characteristics
› Most are nocturnal (unless disturbed)
› Leave their burrows or construct webs to feed at night

Do you use pesticides to treat spiders?
One of the most serious misuses of pesticides is their broad scale application for spider control. It is not uncommon for schools and childcare centres to have regular application of pesticides to eaves, skirting boards, fences, and perimeters to control spiders. Unless the spider is directly sprayed with pesticides, these treatments are largely ineffective because spiders have many features that enable them to withstand being poisoned by pesticides.

Spiders have tarsi on the end of their legs that enable them to move over treated surfaces without contacting pesticides. They can close down their respiratory system to avoid breathing in pesticides and have waxy cuticles that prevent pesticide penetration.

Blanket pesticide applications for ground dwelling spiders such as funnel webs, is particularly ineffective, and potentially dangerous, because the spiders are underground and unlikely to contact the pesticide and contact with low levels of pesticides increases the risk of encountering a groggy or upset spider. Be cautious if you find a spider in a pool of water as they can remain alive for several days.

TICKS

Ticks are not insects, they belong to the class Arachnida, along with spiders and mites. Ticks are significant vectors of disease and are an important pest to manage. Human exposure to ticks occurs as a result of contact with pets, during bushland recreation and as settlements extend into bushland areas.

There are two major types of ticks - hard ticks that have a shield on their backs and soft ticks, which lack the shield. Both grow to a large size after a blood meal. There are over 850 species worldwide, with about ten percent that impact humans and other animals.
Broad scale application of pesticides to the landscape to control ticks is dangerous and ineffective. Regular pesticide treatment of pets can be harmful to the pet and the person washing the animal. Water used for washing animals with insecticides should not be released down drains as it has been found that these pesticides go on to kill aquatic organisms as well.

The Australian paralysis tick
The Australian paralysis tick is found along the eastern coast of Australia, from Queensland to Victoria. Poisoning from paralysis ticks kills many domestic animals and very rarely, humans. Anyone suspecting tick poisoning must immediately visit the doctor, or in the case of animals, the vet.

Tick characteristics
Tick species differ in their preferred habitats, ability to transmit pathogens, longevity, and choice of hosts. Ticks are more active in the warmer months, especially around November-December.

› Blood suckers
› Live for an extended period of time if no host available
› May have more than one host, or type of host
› Prefer humid conditions

Tick life-cycle
Ticks have four stages in their life-cycle > egg, larva, nymph, adult. The larvae have only six legs while the adults have eight legs. Ticks are relatively long lived and have high reproductive rates.

Tick removal
Ticks should be removed carefully to avoid the head and mouthparts breaking off. Use blunt tweezers to grab the tick as close to the head as possible and exert gentle, steady pressure. Do not twist or crush the tick. Ensure the entire tick is removed, wash the wound and apply antiseptic. Keep the tick for identification. Seek medical advice if symptoms develop.

RODENTS

Rats and mice are rodents and have been associated with human communities for a very long time. Rodents are considered pests because of their gnawing habit, which can damage structures and electrical wiring. They can also eat and urinate on food and transmit diseases. Rodent management in urban environments requires IPM strategies at the community level in order to be effective in the long term.

Rodents are associated with environments where there is easy access to food and shelter. Rodents are very mobile and readily re-colonise suitable areas. Environmental controls are the most effective strategy in the long run.

Rodent life-cycle

Rodents are mammals and give birth to live young after a gestation period. Rats and mice reproduce year round with gestation periods of 20-25 days and 18-21 days respectively. Rats average between 5-12 in each litter and mice 4-8. They have an average life span of about 1 year.

Rodent characteristics
› Gnawing habit to control the size of their front teeth and will chew non-food items such as cables, toys and plastic water pipes
› Live and nest within easy access to food and water
› Feed between dusk and dawn
› Feed on a wide variety of materials, but mainly grain feeders
› Social and live in groups
› Construct nests with soft materials such as paper and fabric
› Habitual and use the same route to travel to and from food and shelter
› Good climbers
› Very keen sense of smell, taste, hearing, and touch
› Poor sight

Common rodent species of concern in Australia

TIMBER PESTS

Termites, borers and wood rotting fungi are the main pests of timber that can cause significant damage to structures. Termites are often called 'white ants' but aside from living in colonies, they bear little resemblance to ants.

There are around 350 species of termites in Australia, little is known about many of them, and the vast majority are not pests to human communities. Termites play a significant ecological role as recyclers of woody tissues, they also help to aerate, drain and mix soil, and are an important food source for predators. They create hollows in trees which many parrots, possums and gliders depend on for homes.

Wood rotting fungi are destructive because they can weaken timber and in the early stages make timber more palatable to termites and borers. Fungal spores can also create respiratory problems. Timber borers include beetles, moths and wasps that, at some stage during their life cycle, use timber as their food source. Two types of wood-boring beetles are significant pests because they may cause damage to dry wood in buildings - the furniture (Anobium punctatum) and powderpost (Lyctus sp.) beetles. Borers and wood rotting fungi are important pests of timber but will not be discussed in great detail here.

Unfortunately, in the bid to protect our buildings from structural pests, a vast amount of toxic and residual pesticides has been applied to the soil and timbers. Slowly but surely however, designs and non-chemical materials have been developed to replace the use of the preventative 'chemical barrier' commonly applied for termite control.

Termite characteristics
› Social insects that live in colonies
› Members differentiated into castes
- queen and king, workers, soldiers, alates (winged reproductives)
› Complex hormonal communication system
› Eat cellulose
› Rely on swarms from the colony for dispersal and founding new colonies

Australian Standards provide good points for termite IPM. AS 3660.1 (2000) details barriers for new buildings and AS 3660.2 (2000) gives advice for existing structures.

Common termites

There are many termite species which can be categorised by their habits and include subterranean, dampwood, drywood and grass-eating termites. Because there are so many different types of termites, a correct identification is essential before deciding whether treatment is necessary.

Subterranean termites are the most significant pests to structural timbers. They build nests underground or at the base of trees and then build mud tunnels from the nest to food sources. The main pest termite species include Coptotermes acinaciformis, Coptotermes fenchi and Schedorhinotermes spp.

It is common to see termite nests in trees or on poles and this species of termite is usually Nasuititermes walkeri. These termites do not commonly cause significant damage in buildings and generally do not need to be treated or removed.

CCA treated playground equipment and fences

Many wooden play structures common to playgrounds have been treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA), a toxic pesticide designed to protect the wood from pests and decay. Recent data suggests that Arsenic can leach out of CCA-treated wood and into the environment, where it can rub off onto children•s hands or contaminate the soil. Arsenic, classified by the EPA as a known human carcinogen, has been linked to birth defects, cardiovascular, immune, and nervous system damage. Children are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of CCA leaching due to their frequent hand-to-mouth contact and limited ability to detoxify chemicals. Their immature organ systems are also uniquely susceptible to irreparable damage.
In recognition of the hazards posed by CCA wood, the wood treatment industry in the USA recently entered into an agreement with the USA Environmental Protection Agency to phase-out the production of CCA wood for home decking and play structures. The phase-out takes effect January 1, 2004 and does not require the testing, sealing or removal of existing playground structures that may continue to present a significant risk to children. The New York State Legislature recently passed legislation (S7167a, Alesi and A10221a, Koon) which prohibits the future use of wood pressure-treated with CCA for public playground equipment and further requires proper maintenance of existing playground equipment and the underlying groundcover to avoid exposure to CCA.
Refer to www.epa.gov/pesticides & www.bancca.org

LAWN AND GARDEN PESTS

Australia has unique and wonderful plant and animal life and we are a nation of keen gardeners. Gardens are places that should be brimming with life - birds, lizards, frogs, beetles, bugs, wasps, bees, worms and micro-organisms. A diverse garden is often less susceptible to pest outbreaks.

A garden is a natural classroom where children can learn about the web of life. Most lawn and garden pests, at low population levels, are best considered as part of the rich web of life and an educational resource.

It is not possible to even begin to provide IPM strategies for the spectrum of garden and lawn pests that may occur in school and childcare centre gardens, as this would be a whole book in itself. What has been provided however, are general strategies for creating and maintaining a healthy garden, as well as natural and low-risk chemical options for pest management. There is a wealth of information available on the web, TV, through books and community gardening services, on low hazard methods for garden pest management.